Air Adventure Australia

Global Expedition - The Silk Road

The Silk Road

Also called the Silk Route: ancient trade route that, linking China with the West, carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. Silk came westward, while wools, gold, and silver went east. China also received Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism (from India) via the road.

Originating at Sian, (Xian), the 4,000 mile (6,400 kilometre) road, actually a caravan tract, followed the Great Wall of China to the northwest, bypassed the Takla Makan Desert, climbed the Pamirs (mountains), crossed Afghanistan, and went on to the Levant; from there, the merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean Sea. Few persons travelled the entire route, and goods were handled in a staggered progression by middlemen.

With the gradual loss of Roman territory in Asia and the rise of Arabian power in the Levant, the Silk Road became increasingly unsafe and untravelled. In the 13th and 14th centuries the route was revived under the Mongols, and at that time Marco Polo used the road to travel to Cathay (China).

The trade route from China to Asia Minor and India had been in existence for 1,400 years at the time of Marco Polo's travels (c. AD 1270-90) when it took him 3 years to travel its length. It came into partial existence about 300 BC, when it was used to bring jade from Khotan (modern Ho-t'ien) to China. By 200 BC it was linked to the West, and by 100 BC it was carrying active trade between the two civilizations. At its zenith in AD 200 this road and its western connections over the Roman system constituted the longest road on earth. The Silk Road fell into disuse when the Roman Empire disintegrated in the 5th century, and safety conditions deteriorated after nomadic tribes came to control sections of the route. It was used intermittently thereafter during subsequent, more peaceful periods.

In Asia the road passed through Samarkand to the region of Fergana, where, near the city of Osh, a stone tower marked the symbolic watershed between East and West. From Fergana the road traversed the valley between the Tien Shan and Kunlun mountains through Kashgar, where it divided and skirted both sides of the Takla Makan Desert to join again at Ansi. The road then wound eastward to Chia-yü-kwan (Su-chou), where it passed through the westernmost gateway (the Jade Gate or Yumen) of the Great Wall of China. It then went southeast on the Imperial Highway to Sian and eastward to Shanghai on the Pacific Ocean. From Kashgar, trade routes to the south passed over the mountains to the great trading centre of Bactria and to northern Kashmir, on to Damascus, Edessa, and the Mediterranean ports of Alexandria and Antioch. The road now partially exists in the form of a paved highway connecting Pakistan and Sinkiang Uighur Autonomous Region, China. The old road has inspired a United Nations plan for a trans-Asian highway.

Major cities along the Silk Road

Kashi (also Kashgar or Kaxgar), city, north-western China, in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, situated in a fertile oasis at the foot of the mountains of the Pamirs near the Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan borders. Located on the Kaxgar River, Kashi is the commercial centre of the arid western end of the Tarim Pendi (Tarim Basin) and is a natural focus of overland routes linking China with the countries of Turkistan, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan. Water from wells and from the Kaxgar River supports crops of cotton, grain, beans, and fruit; hides and wool are produced in nearby semiarid grazing lands. Traditional handcrafted cotton and silk textiles, rugs, leather goods, and jewellery, produced for centuries for the overland caravan routes, remain the basis of the economy. Uygurs constitute a majority of the largely Muslim population.

Formerly called Shu-fu by the Chinese, Kashi was part of the Chinese empire during the reign of the Han (206BC-AD220) and again under the Tang (T’ang) (618-907). After about AD750, when the Tang withdrew, it was ruled for long periods by Turkic, Uygur, Mongol, and other Central Asian empires before returning once more to Chinese control in 1760. From 1865 to 1877 Kashi was the capital of an independent Muslim state established in the Tarim Pendi by Yakub Beg. Population (1990) 174,570.

Ürümqi, also Urumchi or Wu-lu-mu-ch'i, city, north-western China, capital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. It is an industrial and cultural centre of a petroleum-rich region near the Kazakh border. The city lies in a fertile oasis, about 900 m (about 3000 ft) above sea level, on the arid northern edge of the Tien Shan. Manufactures include iron and steel, cement, agricultural machinery, chemicals, and textiles. Coal and iron-ore deposits are nearby. The population, reflecting a long history on a caravan route from Central Asia, is mostly Uygur, with Chinese, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz minorities. Mosques in the city reflect a continuing Islamic influence. Xinjiang University is here.

Province The city became a Uygur stronghold in the 8th century AD following periods of tenuous Chinese control during the Han (206 BC-AD 220) and Tang (T’ang) (618-907) dynasties. It came under Chinese control again in the 1760s as part of Eastern Turkistan, and in 1884 the city was made the capital of the newly created Sinkiang. Known officially by its Chinese name of Dikhua after 1763, it was renamed Ürümqi (a name in popular usage) in 1954 and in 1955 became the capital of the new Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Industrialisation, hampered by isolation, accelerated after the discovery (1955) of petroleum deposits at nearby Karamay. Population (1991) 1,046,898.

Toshkent or Tashkent, city in eastern Uzbekistan, capital of the country and of Toshkent Viloyat (Oblast). Located in an oasis near the Chirchiq River in a cotton- and fruit-growing region, Toshkent is a major industrial and transportation centre. It has industries producing machinery, cotton and silk textiles, chemicals, tobacco products, and furniture. A centre of Uzbek culture, Toshkent has several large libraries and is the seat of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences and numerous other institutions of higher learning. A subway system was opened here in 1977.

The first mention of Toshkent dates from the 7th century AD, although it was probably founded by the 1st century BC. The city was conquered, successively, by the Arabs in the 8th century AD, by Genghis Khan in the early 13th century, and by Tamerlane in the 14th century. It was annexed by Russia in 1865, and a new Russian city was built around the older town. Toshkent succeeded Samarqand as the capital of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union in 1930. In 1966 Toshkent suffered heavy damage from an earthquake. Toshkent became the capital of independent Uzbekistan in 1991. Population (1991 estimate) 2,120,000.

Khiva, also known as Khorezm, formerly a large khanate of west central Asia, south of the Aral Sea, now part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Khiva is also the name of a town in north-western Uzbekistan near the Turkmenistan border; the town is noted for its many historic buildings, such as the Islam-Khodzha Minaret and the mausoleum of the khans. In ancient times the Oxus River (now Amu Darya), which passes through the region, emptied into the Caspian Sea and thus provided the ancient state with a waterway to Europe. An Uzbek khan founded the town of Khiva in the early 16th century as the capital of his khanate, which also became known as Khiva. Russia annexed part of the khanate in 1873, and controlled the rest of Khiva as a protectorate. In 1919 the Russians deposed the khan of Khiva, dissolving the khanate, and in 1920 Khiva became the Khorezmian People's Soviet Republic. In 1924, after the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed, the Khorezmian People's Soviet Republic was split between two of the constituent republics, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) and the Turkmen SSR.

Bukhoro, city, western Uzbekistan, capital of Bukhoro Oblast. It is located in an oasis on the Zeravshan River. Also called Bokhara or Bukhara, the city is situated in a region producing natural gas, cotton, fruit, and silk. It has industries manufacturing textiles, processed karakul pelts, carpets, and clothing. Among Bukhoro's many architectural monuments, some dating from the 9th century, are several mosques, the Ark Fortress (now a museum), and the mausoleum of Ismail Samani (9th-10th century). A teachers college is also there.

Founded by the 1st century AD, Bukhoro was an important trade and cultural centre when it was captured (early 8th century) by the Arabs. It was a leading centre of Islamic learning under the Arabs and the Persian Samanid dynasty, which held the city in the 9th and 10th centuries. It later was captured successively by the Qarakhanids and Tatars, and in 1555 it became the capital of an Uzbek emirate. The emirate was conquered in 1866 by Russia, which held it as a protectorate from 1868 to 1920; then the emir was removed, and the city was made the capital of the Bukhoro People's Soviet Republic. From 1924 to 1991 the city was incorporated into the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR). Uzbekistan became an independent republic in 1991. Population (1990 estimate) 228,000.

Samarqand, also Samarkand, city, capital of Samarqand Oblast, central Uzbekistan. Located in the irrigated valley of the Zeravshan River, the city has industries that produce tea, wine, textiles, fertiliser, and motor-vehicle parts. It is the oldest city in Central Asia and is divided into a newly built section and an old quarter that has, among other monuments, mosques dating from the 14th and 15th centuries and the 15th-century mausoleum of the Turkic conqueror Tamerlane. The city is the seat of a university and a museum of ancient history.

The site of Samarqand was settled about 2000BC. Later known as Maracanda, the city was the capital of Sogdiana, an ancient Persian province, and was conquered by Alexander the Great in 329BC. It subsequently grew as a trade centre on the route between China and the Mediterranean region. In the early 8th century AD, it was conquered by the Arabs and soon became an important centre of Muslim culture. In 1220 Samarqand was almost completely destroyed by the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan. It flourished again when Tamerlane made it the capital of his empire in 1369. The empire declined in the 15th century, and Samarqand was taken in 1500 by the Uzbeks. In 1784 it was conquered by the emirate of Bukhoro. The city was taken by Russia in 1868 and once again began to assume importance. From 1924 to 1930, Samarqand was the capital of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR). Population (1991 estimate) 371,000.

Tehrân or Teheran, capital and largest city of Iran, located in the northern part of the country. Tehrân is Iran’s administrative, economic, and cultural centre as well as the major industrial and transportation centre of the region. The city sits on the slopes of the Elburz Mountains at an elevation of about 1210 m (about 3960 ft), on the north-western fringes of the Dâsht-e Kavir, a desert in central Iran. The climate has marked seasonal contrasts, with short springs and autumns separating cold winters and hot, dry summers. In July, the average temperature in the southern part of the city is 30° C (86° F), compared with 23° C (73° F) in the higher, northernmost suburbs. In the winter, temperature in the city’s southern areas average 5° C (41° F), and in the northern suburbs, 1° C (34° F). Average annual precipitation is 231 mm (9 in), again with notable differences between the northern suburbs (393 mm/16 in) and the lower southern areas (93 mm/4 in).

Eºfahân or Isfahan (ancient Aspadana), city in central Iran, capital of Eºfahân (Isfahan) Province, on the northern bank of the Zaindeh Rud. Farming is the chief occupation of the surrounding region in which cotton, grain, and tobacco are grown. The city is a major textile-milling centre, and cotton, silk, and woollen goods are produced here; other manufactures include brocade, carpets, foodstuffs, and metalwork. The city also serves as the outlet for animal products of the province.

Eºfahân was renowned in former times for its architectural grandeur and the beauty of its public gardens. Most of the gardens and many of the edifices are now in ruins, but a number of imposing structures have been preserved or restored. In the central part of the city is a 17th-century royal mosque known as Masjid-i-Shah, which is faced with coloured tile and regarded by many as an outstanding example of Persian architecture. The mosque is located within a huge rectangular garden, now surrounded by bazaars. Nearby is the Masjid-i-Shaikh-Lutfullah, a mosque famous for its dome of blue tile. The Ali-Kapu gate leads to the former royal gardens, in which is found the throne room, Chihil Sutun, or Forty Pillars. Additional points of interest include the Shah Hussain madrasah, a magnificent building constructed in 1710 as a school for dervishes (see Dervish), and an arcaded bridge spanning the Zaindeh Rud.

When it was known as Aspadana, the city formed part of the ancient Asian country of Media. In the middle of the 7th century the city was occupied by invading Arabs. The Seljuk Turks conquered Eºfahân and made it the capital of their empire in 1051. Tamerlane, the Turkic conqueror, captured the city in 1387, during his invasion of Iran, and reputedly massacred 70,000 inhabitants.

Eºfahân's golden age began in 1598 when Abbas I, shah of Iran, made it the national capital. Under his patronage the city attained the peak of its growth, commercial prosperity, and architectural splendour. According to an unofficial estimate the population then numbered at least 500,000. Invading Afghans captured Eºfahân in 1722, and the seat of the Iranian government was removed to Shîrâz. The Afghans were expelled in 1729, but the city never fully recovered from their occupation. Population (1991) 1,127,050.

Shîrâz, city in south-western Iran, capital of Fârs Province. Located in the Zagros Mountains, Shîrâz is a commercial centre of the surrounding region, which produces grapes, citrus fruit, cotton, and rice. The chief products are Shîrâz wine, which has been famed for centuries; inlaid articles of wood; metalwork, especially silver; rugs; brocades and other textiles; cement; and fertiliser. Points of interest in Shîrâz include the tombs of the celebrated Persian poets Hafiz and Sa'di, both natives of the city, and the 9th-century mosque of Masjid-i-Jama. The city is also the site of a university (1945). Shîrâz was founded in the 7th century and was the capital of Iran during several periods of its history. Population (1991) 965,117.

Persepolis (Greek, "City of the Persians"), one of the ancient capitals of Persia; its ruins are at Takht-i Jamshid, about 56 km (about 35 mi) north-west of Shîrâz, Iran. Called Parsa by the Persians, it was used as a residence by the Achaemenid kings, beginning with Darius I in the late 6th century BC. The site consists of the remains of several monumental buildings on a vast stone terrace surrounded by a brick wall. The palace and audience hall (Apadana) of Darius I contain sculptured reliefs depicting Achaemenid court ceremonies. Thirteen of the Apadana's massive stone columns are still standing, and its broad double staircase has been restored by archaeologists. At Naksh-i Rustam, some 6 km (about 4 mi) north-west of Persepolis are the Achaemenid royal tombs. Plundered and burned by Alexander the Great in 330BC, Persepolis was eventually abandoned. Excavation of the site began in 1931, supervised by James Henry Breasted of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute.

Istanbul, formerly Constantinople, city in north-western Turkey, the only city in the world that sits astride two continents—Europe and Asia. Istanbul is the largest city in Turkey and the country’s chief commercial and cultural centre. With the finest natural harbour in the region, it is also an important trade hub. The city is the capital of Istanbul Province, which is bounded on the north by the Black Sea, on the south and south-west by the Sea of Marmara, on the east by Kocaeli Province, and on the west by Tekirdag Province. The Bosporous, a narrow strait that links the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara, separates Istanbul’s European and Asian sections.

Istanbul has a temperate climate, with warm summers and mild winters, making it a popular vacation spot. Precipitation varies from an average of 33 mm (1.3 in) in summer to an average of 107 mm (4.2 in) in winter. The city is prone to earthquakes, some of which have caused severe damage.

Istanbul was founded in the 7th century BC as Byzantium. In the 4th century AD it was renamed Constantinople by Roman emperor Constantine the Great. The city served as the capital of the Byzantine Empire until it was captured by the Ottomans in the 15th century and made the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans called the city Istanbul for centuries, but it was not until 1930, seven years after Turkey gained independence, that Istanbul became its official name. According to some sources, the name Istanbul is derived from the Greek term stin poli, meaning "to the city" or "in the city."

Gallipoli (Turkish Gelibolu), city and seaport in north-western Turkey, in Çanakkale Province, on a narrow peninsula extending into the Dardanelles. Situated in European Turkey, it has two harbours and is strongly fortified. Lignite, copper, and petroleum are mined in the area surrounding the city. Roman and Byzantine ruins are in the immediate vicinity. Gallipoli was captured by the Ottoman Turks in the mid-14th century. The city has long been strategic in the defence of Ýstanbul (formerly Constantinople) and was the scene of a major military campaign during World War I (1914-1918), known as the Gallipoli Campaign. Population (1990) 40,020.

Dardanelles (Turkish Çanakkale Boðazi, ancient Hellespont), strait in north-western Turkey, about 64 km (about 40 mi) long and 1.6 to 6.4 km (1 to 4 mi) wide, situated between Asian Turkey and the Gallipoli (Gelibolu) Peninsula of European Turkey. It connects the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, thus forming a link in the waterway between the Mediterranean and Black seas. The strait constitutes a part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. Important towns on the Dardanelles include Gallipoli on the European side, at the entrance to the Sea of Marmara, and Çanakkale in Asian Turkey. The strait has a swift surface current in the direction of the Aegean Sea; this current is made swifter by seasonal winds. The entrances to the Dardanelles are fortified.

The Dardanelles is prominent in Greek legend and has been famous since early times. The ancient name, Hellespont, is said to have been derived from Helle, who was drowned in the strait when she fell from the back of the ram Chrysomallus. Leander also supposedly perished in the Hellespont during one of his nightly crossings to visit his beloved Hero. The legend inspired the British poet Lord Byron to swim the strait in 1810.

The strategic importance of the Dardanelles was demonstrated in 480BC by Xerxes I, king of Persia, who, on his way to attack the Greeks, built a bridge of boats across the strait. Control of the Dardanelles in succeeding centuries was a source of power and wealth for those who held it.

Troy (Asia Minor), also Ilium (ancient Ilion), famous city of Greek legend, on the north-western corner of Asia Minor, in present-day Turkey. The legendary founder of the city was Ilus, the son of Tros, from whom the name Troy was derived. The son and successor of Ilus was Laomedon, who was slain by the hero Hercules, when Hercules captured the city. During the reign of Laomedon's son Priam occurred the celebrated Trojan War, which resulted in the capture and destruction of the city.

The Troy that appears in the Homeric poems was long regarded as a purely legendary city, but in 1870 the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann began excavations that unearthed the actual stone walls and battlements of an ancient city on the mound called Hissarlik ("Place of Fortresses"), about 6.5 km (about 4 mi) from the Aegean Sea and equidistant from the Dardanelles. Schliemann's excavations were continued after his death by his assistant, Wilhelm Dörpfeld, whose work in 1893 and 1894 threw new and important light on Schliemann's discoveries.

Between 1932 and 1938 new excavations were carried on at the site by the University of Cincinnati, under the direction of the American archaeologist Carl Blegen. On the mound of Hissarlik, the following successive settlements have been determined: Troy I, an early settlement with a wall built of small stones and clay, its date being perhaps about 3000BC; Troy II, a prehistoric fortress, with strong ramparts, a palace, and houses, dating from the 3rd millennium BC; Troy III, IV, and V, prehistoric villages successively built on the debris of Troy II during the period from 2300 to 2000BC; Troy VI, a fortress, including a larger area than any of the preceding settlements, with huge walls, towers, gates, and houses dating from 1900 to 1300BC or later; Troy VIIA, a reconstruction of Troy VI, built in the later part of this period after the city had been destroyed by an earthquake; Troy VIIB and VIII, Greek villages, of simple stone houses, dating from about 1100BC to the 1st century BC, and Troy IX, the acropolis of the Greco-Roman city of Ilion, or New Ilion, with a temple of Athena, public buildings, and a large theatre, and existing from the 1st century BC to about AD500.

Schliemann discovered the first five settlements and identified Troy II with the Homeric Troy. Dörpfeld's discoveries, confirmed by Blegen, proved that the Homeric Troy must be identified with Troy VIIA, which was destroyed by fire about the traditional date of the Trojan War.

Izmir, formerly Smyrna, city and seaport in western Turkey, capital of Izmir Province, at the head of the Gulf of Izmir. Izmir is one of the chief seaports of Turkey and is served by several railroads. It is also a commercial and industrial centre; dyes, soaps, and textiles are manufactured and foods and tobacco are processed. The chief exports include carpets, foodstuffs, and minerals. Aegean University (1955) is here.

Founded in the 11th century BC by the Aeolians, a Greek people, the city was seized by the Ionians before 688 BC. Later in the 7th century BC, Smyrna was devastated by the Lydians, a people of Asia Minor. Antigonus I, king of Macedonia, restored the city in the 4th century BC, and subsequently it was fortified and improved by Lysimachus, a general in the service of Alexander the Great. Smyrna was conquered later by the Romans and subsequently became an early centre of Christianity, referred to as one of the "seven churches" (see Revelation 1:11). During the 4th century AD the city was made a part of the Byzantine Empire, and from the 11th to the 15th century was alternately ruled by the Byzantines and the Turks. In 1402 Smyrna was ravaged by Turkic conqueror Tamerlane, and after 1424 belonged to the Ottoman Turks. The Greeks claimed Smyrna after World War I (1914-1918), and by the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, drawn up in 1920, the administration of the city and its Ionian hinterland was assigned to Greece for five years. The Greek occupation was contested by the Turks, who seized Smyrna in 1922. According to the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, the city was awarded to Turkey. Population (1990) 1,757,414.

Ephesus, one of the 12 cities of Ionia (an ancient Greek district on the western coast of Asia Minor), located near modern Ýzmir, Turkey. As a port city at the mouth of the Cayster (modern Küçükmenderes) River, it was a major departure point for trade routes into Asia Minor. Known in antiquity for its sacred shrines, notably a famous temple (one of the Seven Wonders of the World) to the goddess Artemis, or Diana, the city was also an important centre of early Christianity.

Probably founded in the 11th century BC by Ionian Greeks, Ephesus was conquered by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC; by Croesus, king of Lydia, in the 6th century; and soon after, by Cyrus the Great, king of Persia. Later it was a tributary of Athens, but it sided with Sparta against Athens in the Peloponnesian War (431-404BC). Sparta ceded it to the Persians, who were driven out by Alexander the Great in 333BC. Under this Macedonian rule Ephesus flourished, and it was briefly renamed Arsinoë. The city passed to Roman rule in 189BC and remained an important commercial centre. St. Paul established a Christian congregation in Ephesus in the 1st century AD, and it was the site of the third general council of the Christian church, which condemned the Nestorian heresy, in 431.

Having been destroyed by the Goths in 262, Ephesus, although rebuilt, never regained its former splendour. Under the Byzantine Empire it declined, and its harbour silted up; it was abandoned in the 14th century.

Excavations at Ephesus, begun in 1863, have uncovered temples to Artemis, public buildings, works of the Greek sculptors Phidias and Polyclitus, and a portrait of Alexander the Great.

The Silkroad Foundation

The Silkroad Foundation is a non-profit organization, established in 1996, to promote the study and preservation of cultures and art on Inner Asia and the Silk Road. The Silkroad Foundation provides resources, information, and interactive exchange toward the pursuit of educating the Bay Area community about Inner Asia and the Silk Road. The Silkroad Foundation operates from private funding and donations and has its headquarters in Saratoga, California.